The cheapest and most expensive countries to buy your way to citizenship
The nations selling passports at a premium
Since St. Kitts and Nevis established the world's first citizenship by investment programme (CIP) in 1984, scores of countries worldwide have got in on the act and generated billions, either by launching straight CIPs, or residency by investment programmes (RIP) aka 'golden visas' as a backdoor to citizenship. We take a look at 46 countries that offer these schemes, how much they cost and the myriad benefits they provide, and reveal why they are so controversial.
Biggest markets
Chinese citizens comprise the bulk of foreign nationals seeking citizenship in other countries. In the past decade, more than 100,000 Chinese investors have spent at least $24 billion (£17.1 billion) securing foreign citizenships. CIPs and RIPs are also popular with rich Russian nationals and citizens from the Middle East, as well as those from South Africa and Brazil.
Attractive benefits
Foreign investors are attracted to these schemes for various reasons, from wanting to live in the country of their choice to start a business and buy property, to obtaining a passport that allows visa-free travel to a greater number of countries. A second passport has become something of a status symbol, particularly for foreign nationals who have few options for visa-free travel.
International controversy
Organisations including the EU and Transparency International have criticised CIPs and RIPs. The EU has raised concerns with member countries that run these programmes and sell EU citizenship, while Transparency International has urged governments to better regulate the schemes. Several programmes have been plagued by corruption and exploited by nationals from pariah states to work around international sanctions.
Citizenship by investment (CIP)
Currently, 12 countries run citizenship by investment programmes (CIP), one of which is temporarily suspended while another is unofficial. These schemes award fast-track citizenship in exchange for a sizeable cash donation or investment in the country. Residency is not usually a requirement and 'golden passports' are issued within a year, and almost instantly in many cases.
Comoros
The Comoros citizenship by investment programme was established in 2001 and remains the world's cheapest – a bargain $45,000 (£23k) investment will secure full citizenship of the Indian Ocean island nation within four months with no residency requirement. Since 2009, almost 52,000 passports have been snapped up.
Comoros
A Comoros passport offers visa-free travel to only 52 countries and territories, but they do include business and tourism hotspots like Singapore and the UAE. There's just one catch. The programme has been suspended temporarily following allegations of corruption surrounding a $200 million (£143 million) deal to sell Comoros citizenship to stateless people in the Middle East.
Dominica
Dominica operates the most affordable CIP in the Caribbean. A donation of $100,000 (£72,000) to the government or a $200,000 (£143,000) property investment will bag you a passport offering visa-free travel to 122 countries and territories. Applications take just four months. There is zero residency requirement and successful applicants are exempt from paying capital gains, inheritance and other taxes.
Dominica
The scheme hasn't been without its controversies. In 2014, the Dominican authorities awarded citizenship to Iranian national Ali Reza Monfared and issued him with a diplomatic passport. Despite its due diligence, the government failed to recognise that Monfared was wanted in Iran for perpetrating the country's biggest corruption scandal. He has since been arrested and extradited.
Saint Lucia
One of the newer schemes, Saint Lucia's CIP was set up in 2015. The requirements are either a one-off donation of $100,000 (£72,000) to the government, a $300,000 (£215,000) property purchase, or a $500,000 (£359,000) bonds investment. The applicant doesn't even have to visit the country and, if successful, receives their passport in as little as three months.
Saint Lucia
Citizens of Saint Lucia have visa-free access to a total of 130 countries and territories, including the UK, France and Switzerland, so the passport is highly sought-after. As is the case with the Dominican programme, successful applicants are also exempt from paying wealth, inheritance, gift and a whole host of other taxes.
Antigua and Barbuda
Antigua and Barbuda has a similar CIP. Since November 2017, applicants have been required to either donate $100,000 (£72,000) to the country's National Development Fund, or pump at least $400,000 (£287,000) into a government-approved property investment. If successful, candidates are awarded a passport within three months.
Antigua and Barbuda
The passport ensures visa-free travel to as many as 140 countries and territories, from the UK to Switzerland. The downside for non-residents is that they have to live in the country for a period of five days once the passport has expired in order to continue being entitled to full citizenship. The upside is they don't have to pay capital gains and other taxes.
Grenada
Staying in the West Indies, Grenada once offered the world's cheapest and most unregulated CIP, charging applicants just $40,000 (£29,000) for instant citizenship. The CIP was closed after the 9/11 attacks in 2001 amid fears the scheme was attracting terrorists, but re-instated in 2014 with tighter rules and higher prices. Still, CIP passport holders don't even have to travel to, let alone live in, Grenada.
Grenada
Today, a one-off donation of $150,000 (£108,000) to the government or a property investment of $350,000 (£251,000) are the minimum requirements, and background checks are relatively stringent. Once granted citizenship, passport holders can travel to 131 countries and territories, including the UK and China, apply for a US E-2 business visa, and gain exemption from paying numerous taxes.
St. Kitts and Nevis
The original CIP programme, St. Kitts' scheme has been running for decades. A $150,000 (£108,000) hurricane relief donation, a $250,000 (£179k) investment in the sugar industry, or a $400,000 (£287,000) property purchase buys citizenship, and you won't even have to step foot in the country. The passport offers visa-free travel to an impressive 141 nations, including the UK and Switzerland.
St. Kitts and Nevis
The programme has attracted criticism for a lack of due diligence. In 2013, the government banned Iranian nationals from applying after it emerged officials from the country were buying passports to evade international sanctions. More recently, the St. Kitts authorities were slammed for granting citizenship to one of China's most wanted fugitives, fraudster Ren Biao.
Vanuatu
The tiny South Pacific island state of Vanuatu founded its CIP in 2015 to raise much-need funds to rebuild the country following the devastating Cyclone Pam. A donation of $200,000 (£143,000) per individual or $280,000 (£201,000) for an entire family is all that is required to gain almost instant citizenship, and the Vanuatu authorities will even accept payment in bitcoin.
Vanuatu
Applicants have a lot to gain. A Vanuatu passport offers visa-free travel to 116 countries and territories, including EU Schengen states, and it's the only CIP passport that allows the bearer to travel to Russia without a visa. Non-residency and dual citizenship are allowed, and successful candidates are not liable for income, inheritance or capital gains taxes.
Cambodia
Cambodia offers the only CIP in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region. The scheme is enshrined in the country's constitution and has been going since the late 1990s. To be eligible, applicants have to contribute to the Cambodian economy by supplying a cash donation of $250,000 (£179,000). There are no residency requirements and candidates can hold dual nationality.
Cambodia
The passport, which can be issued pretty much immediately, isn't the best travel document. Visa-free access is restricted to 49 countries and territories, none of which are in Europe or North America. Foreign nationals are barred from owning property in Cambodia, so citizenship tends to be taken up by people who want to invest in real estate rather than roam the world with ease.
Turkey
Last year, Turkey launched its very own CIP. In order to qualify, applicants must invest either $1 million (£712,000) in property, $2 million (£1.4 million) in a Turkish business, or $3 million (£2.1 million) in government bonds. There is no residency requirement and passports are issued almost instantly once the application has been approved.
Turkey
The programme is said to be popular with nationals from Middle Eastern countries. The Turkish passport is ranked joint 41st in the world in the latest Henley Passport Index, the go-to index of travel document visa restrictions, and offers visa-free access to a total of 110 countries and territories, from Argentina and South Korea, to Malaysia and South Africa.
Malta
Malta launched its CIP in 2014. Initially, the government announced plans to offer instant citizenship in exchange for a $800,000 (£568k) investment, but following pressure from opposition MPs and the EU, which frowns upon member states selling passports, the minimum investment was increased to $1.4 million (£1m), and candidates are now required to live in the country for at least a year to qualify.
Malta
Highly desirable, a Maltese passport offers EU citizenship and visa-free travel to 173 countries and territories, including the USA and Canada. Candidates are screened rigorously but abuses of the programme have been uncovered. Last December, Transparency International revealed that several Russian nationals accused of corruption have managed to acquire Maltese passports.
Cyprus
Cyprus' CIP was set up in 2013 to appease foreign investors who had lost cash following the Cypriot financial crisis. Before that, non-residency citizenship was granted on an informal discretionary basis and required an investment of up to $35 million (£25 million). The current investment stands at a more affordable $2.5 million (£1.8 million).
Cyprus
A Cypriot passport guarantees EU citizenship, as well as visa-free access to 163 countries and territories. Since 2013, the country has sold thousands and raked in $4.9 billion (£3.5 billion) from the scheme. Almost half the successful applicants are Russian nationals and concerns have been raised over the granting of citizenship to controversial Kremlin-linked oligarchs such as Oleg Deripaska (pictured here with Vladimir Putin).
Austria
The world's most coveted CIP is unsurprisingly, the most expensive. Austria's non-official scheme comes top in the latest Henley & Partners' Global Residence and Citizenship Programs report, the definitive comparison of CIPs. Shrouded in secrecy, the programme has no official guidelines and candidates are vetted meticulously, but passports are issued instantly following extensive checks.
Austria
Though not set in stone, a donation of $3 million (£2.2 million) to the Austrian economy or a $10 million (£7.2 million) investment, plus up to $600,000 (£430 million) in fees should secure a passport. Austrian citizens can live and work anywhere in the EU and travel visa-free to 177 countries and territories, but it's worth noting that you'd have to relinquish your existing passport as Austria doesn't recognise dual nationality.
Residency by investment (RIP)
Residency by investment programmes (RIP) aka 'golden visas' offer a more backdoor way of obtaining citizenship. Residency is granted in exchange for a cash donation or investment, but candidates must live in the country for a specific period of time to qualify for a passport, and may be subject to other requirements such as fluency in their chosen country's official language.
Panama
The cheapest RIP in the world is none other than Panama's, but you have to be a national of one of 50 so-called Friendly Nations to be considered. They include the US and Canada, Japan and Singapore, Brazil and other South American countries, as well the UK and the majority of EU nations. Nationals of these countries simply have to deposit $5,000 (£3,700) in a Panamanian bank account to qualify for residency.
Panama
Nationals from other countries must invest at least $200,000 (£142,000) in property to be eligible for residency. In all cases, Panamanian citizenship is granted to residence permit holders who have lived in the country for at least five years. The passport offers visa-free travel to 129 countries and territories, which include the UK, Spain, Russia and South Africa.
Hungary
Hungary offers the EU's most economical RIP. To apply for the Hungarian Entrepreneur Residency Programme (HER), foreign nationals have to agree to invest $12,000 (£8.600) in a business in the country that will employ at least two members of staff with Hungarian nationality. The applicant is granted temporary residence, which is made permanent after three years.
Hungary
HER participants are free to travel within the Schengen Area without a passport and become eligible for a Hungarian passport once they've lived in the country for eight years. Passport holders can live and work anywhere in the EU and travel to 171 countries and territories visa-free, from the USA and Canada to New Zealand.
Colombia
Citizenship-seekers on a tight budget might want to look into funding a Colombian business. An investment of $23,000 (£16,000) is all that is needed to gain residency, and full citizenship is granted to business investors who reside in the country for at least 10 years. Alternatively, a property purchase of at least $150,000 (£107,000) offers a faster track to citizenship.
Colombia
Property buyers that meet the relevant criteria have a shorter wait – they only need live in Colombia for five years to qualify for a passport. In the meantime, they are free to travel to most South American countries using their residence card as a travel document. The passport itself offers visa-free travel to 112 countries and territories, including Spain, Russia and South Korea.
Thailand
Thailand launched a new elite RIP last year, which gives foreign nationals the right to live in the country permanently. Foreign residents simply pay a one-off fee of $60,000 (£43,000) and a $600 (£430) annual payment to stay. A number of VIP privileges are included in the package, including free spa treatments, a complimentary yearly health check and VIP airport lounge access.
Thailand
To qualify for Thai citizenship, elite RIP participants must live in Thailand for five years uninterrupted and be prepared to denounce their existing nationality as dual nationality isn't allowed. Fluency in the Thai language is also a prerequisite for citizenship and applicants must show they are solvent. A Thai passport offers visa-free travel to 75 countries and territories.
Philippines
If the low cost of living in the Philippines appeals, foreign nationals can organise a Special Investor's Resident Visa (SIRV) by investing $75,000 (£54,000) in the country. The investment has to be in a publicly listed company or private firm that operates in the services or manufacturing sector. In return, foreign investors get the right to reside in the Philippines for as long as the investment subsists.
Philippines
Arranging citizenship is another matter entirely. Foreign nationals with an SIRV are required to live in the Philippines for at least 10 years. In addition, they will have to speak and write Tagalog fluently and have an in-depth knowledge of Filipino history and culture. If the applicant is successful, they will be issued with a passport that offers visa-free travel to just 64 countries and territories.
Latvia
Latvia has one of Europe's most affordable RIPs. Investors can garner residency status by either investing $123,000 (£88,000) in a business, depositing $370,000 (£263,000) in a Latvian bank, or splashing at least $339,000 (£241,000) on property. Holders of the country's residence permits are free to move within the 26 Schengen nations.
Latvia
Russian nationals are particularly drawn to the programme due to Latvia's proximity to their homeland. To obtain full citizenship, residence permit holders must live in Latvia for a minimum of 10 years. Citizens are free to live and work in EU member states and can travel visa-free to a total of 170 countries and territories, including the USA, Canada and Japan.
Fiji
Another relatively budget option, Fiji's investor visa programme will set you back $125,000 (£89,000), which has to be spent on property in the South Pacific island country. The scheme has been most popular with Chinese nationals. To gain full citizenship and that all-important passport, visa holders must live in Fiji for a minimum of five years.
Fiji
The passport is ranked joint 52nd in the Henley Passport Index, and visa-free travel is restricted to 84 countries and territories, which don't include the US, Canada or Australia. Ireland is the only European country Fijians can visit without a visa but the passport does offer visa-free access to China, Russia and Singapore.
Brazil
Brazil has a RIP in the form of the country's VIPER programme. Investors have to either buy a property priced at a minimum of $150,000 (£107,000) or bankroll a business for the same amount of money. Full citizenship rights are awarded to VIPER visa holders who live in Brazil for at least four years, but residence card holders can visit most South American countries without a passport.
Brazil
Along with the Chilean passport, Brazil's travel document is ranked the best in South America for global visa-free access with minimal fuss. The passport entitles its bearer to visit a total of 160 countries and territories without a visa, including EU nations, Switzerland, Singapore and New Zealand.
UK
In terms of advanced economies, the UK offers the most affordable RIP in the world. The minimum investment is just $281,000 (£200,000), which must be used to start a business in the country. Otherwise, foreign nationals can invest a minimum of $2.8 million (£2 million) in UK government bonds, shares, or loan capital in active and trading British companies, to qualify for a Tier-1 visa.
UK
After five years of residence, visa holders are entitled to citizenship and a UK passport, which gives them access to 177 nations visa-free. The scheme has its fair share of critics, who have vilified the government for granting citizenship to foreign nationals without carrying out the appropriate Home Office checks. Last year for instance, it emerged that the son of Kazakh fugitive Mukhtar Ablyazov had acquired UK citizenship using stolen money.
Greece
Cash-strapped Greece has raised more than $1.2 billion (£856 million) from its RIP. Foreign nationals who invest $308,000 (£220,000) in property are eligible for the country's golden visa programme, making it the cheapest property-based RIP in Europe. Restrictions do apply however, and residence permit holders are not allowed to work in the country.
Greece
Residents are entitled to citizenship after seven years of uninterrupted living and are then able to live and work in any EU country. The Greek passport is rated the sixth best in the world according to the Henley Passport Index and holders can travel to a total of 174 countries and territories without a visa.
Germany
Foreign nationals who wish to participate in Germany's vibrant economy and live in the country can do so by investing $308,000 (£220,000) in a German business. Successful applicants are given a German residence permit, which they can use to travel anywhere within the Schengen Area, and are issued with a passport after eight years of residence.
Germany
Eight years many seem like a long time, but the passport is worth the wait for many people. Almost topping the latest Henley & Partners Passport Index, Germany's travel document is considered the joint second best in the world. German passport holders are able to live and work in other EU member states and can travel without a visa to 179 countries and territories.
France
Germany's EU neighbour offers a similar scheme. In order to be considered for France's RIP, foreign nationals are required to invest $370,000 (£264,000) in a business that creates jobs for French workers. Approved candidates are issued with a carte de séjour that guarantees free movement in other Schengen countries.
France
Permanent residency is granted after five years living in the country, and full citizenship is awarded after 10 years. The French passport is one of the most prestigious in the world. French citizens have visa-free access to 178 countries and territories, from the USA and Canada, to Japan and Australia, and can live and work in any EU nation.
Belgium
Belgium's business investor RIP is the most popular of its kind in Europe. Foreign nationals are required to invest $431,000 (£307,000) in a business that creates jobs for Belgian citizens. They are then issued with a residence permit that also allows them to travel within the Schengen Area without a passport.
Belgium
There is no official minimum investment, but typically, you'd have to put down at least $432,000 (£307,000). Citizenship is granted to investors who reside in the country for at least five years. Belgian passport holders can visit 174 countries and territories visa-free and can of course live and work anywhere in the EU.
Portugal
The Portuguese government has cashed in to the tune of more than $3.2 billion (£2.1 billion) thanks to its super-popular RIP. The golden visa programme is property-based. The minimum investment to qualify is $431,000 (£307,000), but the property has to be within a specific regeneration zone outside Lisbon and buyers are required to renovate it.
Portugal
Otherwise, golden visa applicants can invest a minimum of $431,000 (£307,000) in Lisbon and elsewhere in the country to qualify. Citizenship and an EU passport with visa-free access to 177 nations is granted after six years of residency. Superstar Madonna acquired a Portuguese golden visa last year, but the lion's share of applicants come from China, followed by Brazil and South Africa.
Andorra
Nestled in the Pyrenees between France and Spain, Andorra is renowned for its high standard of living and refreshingly low taxation system. Foreign nationals who invest more than $493,000 (£350,000) in property are entitled to a residence permit, but won't have the option to move freely within the Schengen Area as Andorra isn't technically in the EU, which is a distinct disadvantage.
Andorra
Residence permit holders have to live in Andorra for at least 20 years to even be considered for full citizenship. For foreign nationals looking for a fast-track way of securing a passport, Andorra is probably not the most suitable programme, unless of course they're prepared to hold out for those two decades.
Bahamas
Always dreamed of living out your days in the beautiful Bahamas? You'd need to fork out at least $500,000 (£356,000) on a property purchase to make that dream a reality. Property buyers who spend more than half a million dollars on a home or condominium are rewarded with a residence permit.
Bahamas
Residence permit holders can live and work in the Bahamas but can't vote in elections. They pay zero income tax, no inheritance, gift or capital gains taxes and there is no sales tax in the country. Full citizenship is granted after 10 years of residence and the passport offers visa-free travel to 141 countries and territories.
Canada
Canada's federal government closed its RIP in 2014, leaving 65,000 applicants hanging. Luckily, foreign nationals can still obtain residency via the Quebec Immigrant Investor Program (QIIP). In order to qualify, applicants must have assets of at least $1.2 million (£900,000) and be prepared to invest a minimum of $611,000 (£435,000) in a business located in the province, which is refundable.
Canada
The applicant is also expected to have at least two years' management experience. Citizenship is awarded to QIIP participants who live for three years uninterrupted in Canada, but quotas are limited and delays are common. Investors who battle through get a passport that allows them to travel visa-free to 176 countries and territories, including the USA, UK and Japan.
USA
The best option for foreign nationals who wish to get hold of a green card and potential US passport is to invest $500,000 (£356,000) in a business located in a Targeted Economic Area that provides jobs for at least 10 American workers, though the minimum investment is expected to rise significantly in the near future. The investment will secure an EB-5 investor visa and permanent residency.
USA
President Trump's senior advisor Jared Kushner is currently being investigated for misuse of the visa programme, which has become more popular since the Trump Administration's clampdown on the H-1B visa scheme. After five years of residence, visa holders can apply for US citizenship and a passport that offers visa-free access to 176 nations, but they will be taxed on their worldwide income.
Mauritius
The Indian Ocean island of Mauritius offers a speedy route to citizenship through the country's property investment visa programme. Foreign nationals who put at least $500,000 (£356,000) into a real estate project, be it a residential or commercial property, are entitled to permanent residency.
Mauritius
Applicants only have to live in Mauritius for a two-year period to qualify for citizenship. The passport, which is ranked joint 31st best in the world in the Henley Passport Index, permits the holder to travel visa-free to a total of 134 countries and territories. These include most EU nations, Russia, China and Japan.
Montenegro
One of the world's newest countries, Montenegro has a proviso in its citizenship legislation that allows for citizenship by investment following a long period of residency. The minimum investment is $616,000 (£439,000), which can be spent on property or funnelled into a business in the country, and applicants have to reside in Montenegro for at least 10 years to get a passport.
Montenegro
In 10 years time, Montenegro could well be a member of the EU, which boosts the appeal of the passport. In the meantime, the country's travel document offers visa-free travel to 112 countries and territories, which include all EU countries apart from the UK and Ireland, Russia, Singapore and Brazil.
Spain
Spain's golden visa programme got off to a slow start following its launch in 2014, but the scheme has since generated more than $2.5 billion (£1.8 billion). Non-EU foreign nationals who want to live in the country are required to invest at least $616,000 (£439,000) in property, bonds or shares. In return, they get a permiso de residencia, which allows them to travel freely within the Schengen Area.
Spain
Successful applicants must then live in the country for a total of 10 years unless they're from a Spanish-speaking nation – the authorities favour residence permit holders whose mother tongue is Spanish. These individuals only have seven years to wait for a passport, which offers visa-free travel to 178 countries and territories.
Italy
Not wanting to miss out on the cash windfall, Italy launched its golden visa programme last year following a change in the law. A minimum investment of $616,000 (£439,000) in an Italian startup, $1.2 million (£900,000) in a regular Italian company or charitable endeavour, or $2.5 million (£1.8 million) in government bonds will secure a two-year residence permit that can be renewed.
Italy
As a bonus, permit holders receive generous tax benefits but must live full-time in Italy for at least 10 years to qualify for citizenship. They do however get permanent residence status after five years and can travel to Schengen countries. One of the most highly regarded in the world, the Italian passport offers visa-free travel to 178 countries and territories.
Bulgaria
Bulgaria has a RIP that paves the way for citizenship, but the precise details are rather sketchy. A minimum investment of $631,000 (£449,000) in property, business or bonds will secure permanent residency, but the time it takes to garner citizenship can vary from as little as 12 months to as long as six years, depending on the size of the investment.
Bulgaria
The situation is so confusing, some brokers market the scheme as a CIP, while others push it as a RIP or golden visa. In any case, once the naturalisation period has elapsed, however long it takes, residence permit holders can apply for a Bulgarian passport, which allows them to live and work anywhere in the EU and travel to 154 countries and territories without a visa.
Hong Kong
Investors who channel at least $800,000 (£570,000) into a business in Hong Kong are eligible for permanent residency via the semi-autonomous territory's investor visa programme. While residency and low taxes are assured, citizenship is only granted if the visa holder lives uninterrupted in Hong Kong for a period of seven years.
Hong Kong
Once the seven-year wait is up, the visa holder can apply for Chinese citizenship, but will have to denounce their existing nationality. The Hong Kong passport is among the best in the world in terms of visa-free travel. Holders can travel to 161 countries and territories, including every single EU nation, Canada, Russia and New Zealand.
Seychelles
The Seychelles offers a RIP that rewards participants with permanent residence status, but it doesn't come cheap. Foreign nationals have to invest at least $1 million (£712,000) in a Seychellois business to qualify. The main plus is they are then able to take advantage of the country's lenient tax laws.
Seychelles
Organising citizenship is more complex and involves a long wait. Foreign residents are required to live in the Seychelles for at least 11 years to be eligible. Seychellois passport holders can travel to a total of 144 countries and territories without a visa, including Schengen Area nations, China, Russia and South Korea.
Switzerland
Securing Swiss citizenship is no walk in the park, but the country's business investor golden visa offers a backdoor. The minimum requirement is an investment of $1.1 million (£783,000) in a Swiss enterprise, which entitles the investor to a residence permit that can be used to travel within the EU's Schengen Area. Tax benefits are lucrative and residents are able to buy property.
Switzerland
The foreign investor has to live in Switzerland for 12 years to be considered for citizenship. If Swiss nationality is awarded, a passport is issued within months that offers freedom of movement in the EU and visa-free travel to 176 countries and territories worldwide, including the US, Canada and Australia.
New Zealand
An attractive destination for Chinese nationals in particular, New Zealand offers two types of investor visas for foreign citizens who wish to live in the country. The simple Investor Visa requires an investment of $2.2 million (£1.6 million) in New Zealand companies or property that isn't for the investor's personal use. Only applicants who are under 65 with fluent English and three-years business experience are eligible.
New Zealand
New Zealand's Investor Visa Plus programme calls for an investment of $7.2 million (£5.1 million), but the visa is subject to fewer conditions. Applicants have no requirement to speak or write English, needn't have any business experience, and can apply at any age. After five years of residence, visa holders are entitled to a passport, which ensures visa-free travel to 173 countries and territories.
Ireland
Ireland's RIP is reported to be popular among wealthy Brits who want to retain EU citizenship post Brexit and don't have an Irish-born grandparent that would make them automatically eligible. A $1.2 million (£900,000) investment in property, business or bonds, or a charitable donation of the same amount secures permanent residence in the republic.
Ireland
Irish citizenship can be applied for after five years of interrupted living in the country. The Irish passport is one of the best in the world for visa-free travel – Irish passport holders can visit 176 countries and territories without a visa, and are able to live and work in any EU country of their choosing.
Monaco
Europe's premier tax haven, Monaco is a magnet for mega-rich foreign nationals seeking a more favourable tax regime. A property investment of $1.2 million (£900,000) or a bank deposit of the same amount are the minimum requirements for residency. Successful applicants also have the right to live in France and travel freely within the Schengen Area.
Monaco
After 10 years of living in the principality, residence permit holders are entitled to Monégasque citizenship. The passport ranks 16th in the latest Henley Passport Index. A total of 162 countries and territories are accessible without a visa, including the USA, Canada and New Zealand.
Australia
Australia has been running a golden visa programme since 2012. Chinese nationals are the main recipients – as many as 85% of Aussie golden visas have been taken up by citizens of China. The scheme is also popular with South Africans and nationals from countries in the Middle East. To qualify, a minimum investment of $1.2 million (£900,000) is required.
Australia
The investment must be in an Australian business – property and other investments won't cut the mustard. Once residency is granted, the visa holder has to live in Australia for a minimum of four years to be eligible for citizenship and apply for a passport, which offers visa-free travel to 174 countries and territories.
India
India boasts a wealth of opportunities for foreign investors, but the country's RIP is on the steep side. To qualify for a golden investor visa, foreign nationals have to find $1.5 million (£1.1 million) and invest the money in an Indian enterprise. This visa is more suited to entrepreneurs who wish to do business and live in India rather than foreign nationals looking to travel the world.
India
The wait for citizenship is long. Investors are required to live in India for at least 12 years to be considered for a passport, which ranks joint 73rd in the world. Visa-free travel is limited with an Indian passport – holders can travel to a mere 56 countries and territories visa-free and need to obtain a visa to visit EU countries and the USA.
Netherlands
On a a par with India's, the Netherlands' golden visa programme will set you back a cool $1.5 million (£1.1 million). The investment must be in a Dutch business, bonds or shares. If successful, applicants are rewarded with instant residency and the right to move freely within the Schengen Area.
Netherlands
Like many countries around the world, the Netherlands has a naturalisation period of five years, so investors are required to live uninterrupted in the country for half a decade in order to qualify for Dutch and EU citizenship. A Dutch passport offers visa-free travel to a bumper 177 countries and territories.
Samoa
Samoa offers a fast-track way of securing citizenship through its RIP, which could almost be classed as a CIP. Applicants need to invest $1.7 million (£1.2 million) in the Polynesian country to qualify and prove they have $1 million (£712,000) in assets, so this isn't a budget option, but the investment criteria are varied, ranging from property to tourism and IT opportunities.
Samoa
Fortunately, residence visa holders are eligible for citizenship if they hold a residence permit for a minimum of three years. Chinese nationals are especially fond of this scheme. The Samoan passport is a formidable travel document offering visa-free travel to 116 countries and territories, from every single EU country to Canada, Russia and South Korea.
Singapore
Out of all the countries on the planet, Singapore operates the most expensive RIP, which like Samoa's has some characteristics of a CIP. To be eligible, foreign investors must pump a whopping $1.9 million (£1.4 million) into a Singaporean business, but for many people, the golden visa scheme represents excellent value for money.
Singapore
Foreign investors can take advantage of numerous tax breaks in the thriving city state and only have to live there for two years to land citizenship and the world's most prestigious passport. Along with Japan's travel document, the Singaporean passport is ranked the joint best in the world according to the Henley Passport Index. It offers visa-free travel to 180 countries and territories.
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